They Say, I Say Chapter 2 11/3/11
Activity #1
Common sense seems to dictate that the use of animals in research is an inhumane and deliberately cruel action that should be stopped at once. However, when alternatives are discussed, animals seem to be the one and only choice for such studies. While many argue that research on animals is an undeserved punishment for the defenseless creatures, these people also have to think about all of the scientific discoveries that have been made because such procedures are conducted. Discoveries that have not only prolonged the age to which humans live, but have also prevented many sicknesses from reaching us. When the topic of animal research is discussed, one should not think about how the research affects animals, but how it benefits humans. In a world where only the strong survive, tough decisions have to be made. Decisions that might affect other creatures, but that in the long run extend the livelihood of our own kind.
Many people today seem to assume that the violation of an animal’s rights through the research conducted on them is something that is necessary for humans to do in order to extend the number of years to which a person lives. However, such procedures cannot be conducted on such creatures, for it is a violation of the principles that are supposed to make us the smartest and most logical creatures on the planet. Granted, that many scientific discoveries are made because of this research, this still does not give us the right to abuse animals in such inhumane ways. Being a human implies that we have acquired a sense to decide on what is right from wrong, yet we go around believing we can just do whatever we desire to other creatures, even is such creatures have done nothing to us. The use of animals for research is something that we should not even think about, but rather an activity that should be condemned by every person who has a conscience in this world.
Everything‘s an Argument 10/2/11
· An argument can be any text-whether written, spoken, or visual-that expresses a point of view.
· Every text is an argument designed to influence others.
Purposes of Argument
· Arguments, although usually aimed at winning can also have other purposes, such as finding common ground with others.
· Argument (discover a truth)àconviction
· Persuasion (know a truth) àaction
· Rogerian argument approaches the audience in a non-threatening way.
Arguments to inform
· While some argument’s purpose is to inform the audience of something they did not know, other informative arguments are obviously intended to persuade. (ex. Political campaigns)
Arguments to Convince
· Arguments that convince usually try to persuade the audience rather than win out over an opponent.
· Arguments that convince usually contain facts that support the underlying opinion of the writer.
Arguments to Explore
· The essential argument in this type of work is the recognition that a problem exists and that it needs to be solved.
· Exploratory arguments can be deeply personal
Arguments to make decisions
· Argument where an answer is not possessed. The answer is reached through the weighing of the pros and cons as well as talking with others.
· The result of many exploratory arguments may be to argue for a particular decision.
Arguments to Meditate or Pray
· In this type of argument, the writer is most often hoping to transform something in him/her or to reach a state of equilibrium or peace of mind.
· The effectiveness of an argument depends not only on the writer, but also on the circumstances of the audience.
Occasions for Argument
· Aristotle’s scheme for classifying the purposes of arguments is based on the issue of time-past, future and present.
· Many arguments’ classifications overlap
· Ex. Arguments about the past with implications of the future, arguments about the future with bearing on the present
Arguments about the past
· Forensic arguments rely heavily on actions or decisions in the past that influence policies or decisions in the present.
· Arguments about the past are called forensic arguments
· Allusions to the past can make present arguments more vivid
Arguments about the future
· Deliberative arguments often rely on prior forensic arguments, (arguments about the past)
· Arguments about the future=deliberative arguments
· Deliberative arguments draw on evidence and testimony
· Deliberative arguments also advance by mans of projections, extrapolations, and reasoned guesses
· Ex. If x is true, y may be true; if x happens , so may y; if x continues, then y may occur
Arguments about the present
· Arguments about the present are often arguments about contemporary values within a society.
· They tend to be heard at public occasions
· Values arguments-that explore contemporary culture-are more typical nowadays.
· They are also called epideitic or ceremonial arguments.
Kinds of Argument
· A way of categorizing arguments is by considering the issues they address.
· This categorization system is called stasis theory.
· A sequence of questions can help determine the point of contention in an argument.
· Studying the result of your questions can help you determine the point you want to make and thus identify the type of argument that will be most effective.
· Questions:
· Did something happen?
· What is its nature?
· What is its quality?
· What actions should be taken?
Arguments of Fact
· An argument of fact usually involves a statement that can be proved or disproved with specific evidence or testimony.
· Facts can be hard to establish because they are often debatable.
Arguments of Definition
· An argument of definition often involves determining whether one known object or action belongs in a second category.
Arguments of Evaluation
· Arguments of evaluation are important in establishing people’s values and priorities.
· If someone or something is well known, not everything has to be backed up with specific evidence.
· An argument of evaluation advances by presenting criteria and then measuring individual people, ideas, or things against those standards.
Proposal Arguments
· An argument that proposes action must have compelled the reader enough to ask, “what can we do?’
· Knowing and explaining the status quo enable writers to explore appropriate and viable alternatives and then recommend one preferable course of action.
Audiences for arguments
· As writers we must always be addressing an intended reader
· If readers do not relate to what you have written they can easily be alienated and therefore disaffected by your argument.
Considering contexts
· As you compose arguments you have to think carefully about the context surrounding your readers, Ex.: place and time
· Your argument will often raise questions about values, consider this when writing.
